Structural Biology in Pharmaceutical Research

Structural Biology in Pharmaceutical Research INTRODUCTION Molecular biology plays a key role and contributes a lot in determining the 3D structure of a molecule be it proteins, nucleotides or any other biological macromolecule. It also helps in finding the target sites when it comes to drug designing. Many structural biology techniques are used in the field of pharmaceutical research. These mainly include X-ray crystallography and NMR Spectroscopy. However, structural biology also includes the help of bioinformatics. Structure based drug design plays a major role when it comes to pharmaceutical research and also it has advanced a lot over the years. The remarkable discovery of peptidomimetics and nonpeptides proves this. This was done using techniques like X ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy as well as other computer based methods. One of the widely used tools in structural biology is X-ray crystallography. This is used to determine the atomic as well as the molecular structure of a crystal where the crystalline atoms cause diffraction of X-rays in many specific directions. It is a form of high resolution microscopy. Using this technique, visualizing protein structures at the atomic level becomes easier and helps in understanding its functions. It also gives information about how proteins react with other molecules and undergo changes in their conformation. As well as the process of catalysis with respect to enzymes. All this knowledge is necessary for designing drugs which are meant to ta rget specific sites or are used for industrial processes. Crystallography, being the most widely used technique may not be successful at all times. With this, NMR comes to the rescue. It helps in elucidating 3D structures of target ligand complexes. With advances in genome sequencing, protein expressions, crystallography and NMR; these have helped in using protein 3D structure for fast discovery of drugs. The role of structural biology and bioinformatics in this is that they help in the manufacturing of drugs that are target specific and well optimized. Also, due to the determination of structure, fragment binding becomes possible. For a drug to work efficiently, it needs to bind to the specific site or the target proteins. Using computer for this is a very good technique which finds and optimizes target proteins that are required. For a substance to bind a target it has be extremely specific like a lock and a key. Structural biology methods and molecular modeling are tools that are used in the developments of such molecules. In the process of drug discovery, computational chemistry proves to be a tool of great help. After the molecule has binded to the desired molecule and the binding properties are known, the suitability of the compound can be improved using the computer. The drug’s binding affinity can be calculated digitally using the computer. Also, using these methods it is also possible to calculate if the changes in the structure would lead to any undesirable or toxic properties. These methods save a lot of time as compared to lab work especially in the early stages of drug designing. Due to this, an increase in the success rates can be observed. Fig 1: Drug Discovery Process Courtesy: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1609333/figure/fig1/ X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY In order to determine the precise molecular structure of the target protein, X-ray structure analysis is used. In this, the crystal lattice structure of the protein diffracts the X-ray beam in a typical way. The diffraction pattern can be analyzed and due to this, the density of electrons can be read which are present in the parts of the target protein. This in turn, helps in determination of the position of the atoms. Several repetition of this process and refining the image is done till the researchers obtain a 3D structure of the target molecule. Usage on X-ray crystallography in drug discovery has been present since a long time where 30 years ago the 1st three dimensional structure of proteins were determined. However, not all the pharmaceutical companies resort to this technique as it is considered time consuming and too expensive. A total change in drug design has occurred in the past years, thus using 3D structures in the designing processes. For structure that were not available with X-ray crystallography, other methods were used which included comparative models based on homologues. Crystal structures of key drug targets are now available like AIDS drugs such as Agenerase and Viracept were developed using the crystal structure of HIV protease and the influenza drug Relenza was designed using the crystal structure of neuraminidase.Drugs originating from structure based design have entered clinic trials and some of them have even been marketed as drugs now. Knowing the protein structure is a key component in the process of drug design. It is used in lead optimization which is a process that revolves around the usage of structure for guiding chemical modification of the molecule of lead for giving the perfect fit with respect to shape, bonds and other interactions. Protein structure is also used in target selection; this involves homology recognition but with the recent advances in structural genomics this has become easier. X-ray crystallography is also used in the direct screening of chemical fragments. Astex Technology has developed â€Å"Pyramid†, where fragment libraries are screened in cocktails using X-ray crystallography. Fragment hits that are derived from Pyramid are optimized in order to maintain good ligand efficiency. NMR NMR spectroscopy was the first structural technique to be made full use in fragment screening. Target Immobilized NMR Screening (TINS) Usage of NMR spectroscopy on targets that are immobilized helps in binding of small molecules. A process called as Target Immobilized NMR Screening (TINS) has ennumerable advantages; one of them being that a minimum quantity of the non isotopically labeled protein is needed. This method helps in binding in the range of KD values of 100nM to 20mM. If the reference protein is selected carefully, the number of false positive hits that one may get can be avoided. Due to this, maximum valid hits are ensured. These hits can be treated with biological assays. A variety of soluble proteins as well as membrane proteins have been screened. The combination of target immobilization and small screening of fragments using NMR proves to be of immense help in Early Drug discovery. STEPS IN DRUG DISCOVERY PROCESS TARGET IDENTIFICATION FROM SEQUENCE STRUCTURE HOMOLOGY RECOGNITON Structural bioinformatics is a backbone for the identification of new members of supefamilies. Protein structures impart a major information about the families and super families. The proteins that have evolved would be having some common structures or features that they would be exhibiting thus leading to the importance of â€Å"homology recognition†. An example of this was the recognition of HIV proteinase which belonged to be a member of the pepsin/renin superfamily. Recognition of distant homologues can be done using methods like sequence-structure matching that are classified as profile methods or threading. Profile methods involve the sequence comparison algorithms using traditional methods. Computer programs like FUGUE aid in this and helps in the recognition of homologues. Another method used is Threading which fits a probe sequence and evaluates compatibility between the sequenced and the structure that is proposed. This method is powerful for fold recognition. Example of a computer based program is GenTHREADER. After the homologue of the structure is known and identifies, it can be modeled using a variety of procedures. Although structural bioinformatics is helpful, it is necessary to have an accurate experimental structure. Target validation and the identification of ligand binding regions Structures defined by structural genomics programs are mainly of proteins that do not have a known function but they have been identified as proteins only on the basis of their gene sequences. Hence, the need for the development of computerized based methods arises which would identify sites which are involved in the interactions. PROSITE, a sequence motif database identifies the specific residues that have functions. Several attempts have been made to predict the interaction sites using computerized based methods either by identifying high-energy conformations or identifying clefts that can accommodate ligands. LEAD DISCOVERY The trait of a target is based on the number of drug like ligands for a target class. Classification of the targets into families has helped in designing compound libraries for particular families. Screening of a small fragments or molecule is needed and this can be done using biophysical assays. Ligand docking is a method that helps to find the best binding position and orientation. The best docking programmes are successful in dockin 70-80% of ligands in the ligand-protein complexes. A major drawback of this method is that there are difficulties in predicting affinities of different compounds. CONCLUSION Knowledge of the three-dimensional structures of protein targets plays a major role in all stages of drug discovery. Its place in lead optimization is well established with large teams of structural biologists recruited into all major pharmaceutical companies. The success of the method is evident from drugs in use and new ones reaching the market. But structural biology and bioinformatics show that many key targets for drug discovery are multidomain and multiprotein complexes. Such systems pose significant challenges not only for characterization using structural techniques but also because the inter-protein surfaces are usually poor in distinguishing features. BIBLIOGRAPHY RESEARCH PAPERS: Blundell, T., Sibanda, B., Montalvao, R.W., Brewerton, S., Chelliah, V., Worth, C., Harmer, N., Davies, O.,1 and Burke D(2006) Structural biology and bioinformatics in drug design: opportunities and challenges for target identification and lead discovery. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 361(1467): 413–423. Congreve, M., Murray CW., and Blundell T(2005) Structural biology and drug discovery. Drug Discov Today. 2005 Jul 1;10(13):895-907. BOOK: Structural Genomics and High Throughput Structural Biology(2006)edited by Michael Sundstrom, Martin Norin, Aled Edwards. WEBSITE: http://www.pharmaceutical-business-review.com/suppliers/zobio/products/nmr-based-structural-biology http://www.bayerpharma.com/en/research-and-development/technologies/research-technologies/computational-chemistry-structural-biology/index.php

Geographical Layout of an Area on Its Politics Essay

What is the effect of the geographical layout of an area on its politics, society, and economy? Physical characteristics of a specific area can have a substantial impact on its history. Regardless of how close one area is to another the outcome of the civilization could be completely different because of how the people have had to adapt to live in their respective areas. This issue would explain how intertwined history is with geography. Europe’s geography provided many disadvantages and advantages which have been the factors for its many successes and failures. Since the majority of Europe is surrounded by water it was a peninsula. This made it so they could trade with ease. The many rivers and mountain ranges of Europe most certainly aided in protecting certain civilizations from invasion or being involved in wars. The wildly vast and diverse geographic features in Europe set the tone for trading routes to prosper, long-lasting cultures to develop, and battles to occur that would change the identity of the region indefinitely. A region’s geographic shape is instrumental in determining what a region will become. Due to Europe’s geographical shape it became a hotspot for any and all trade. With natural resources plentiful Europe was constantly bustling with business. The Iberian Peninsula gave Spain and Portugal easy access to trade with foreign countries. The Balkan Peninsula gave many countries along the Aegean Sea the effortless option to trade. The many Peninsulas provided great advantages for Europeans due to the plentiful food the oceans supplied. These advantages molded many European civilizations into what they are today whether they isolate themselves from others or interact. The specific geographical features within a region provided protection, but also could have provided isolation. The many rivers and mountain ranges of Europe provided many people with fertile soil and a feeling of safety. However, the mountain ranges could stop trade between countries and slow the advancement of technology and knowledge between these regions. The rivers on the other hand would encourage trade and it would flourish. The physical characteristics of a region affect the decisions people greatly. Europe has a wide variety of terrains. Some help the people who live there, while others force people to adapt. These features influenced the development of many areas. For example the Alps acted as a barrier throughout the Punic Wars. It was perhaps the Roman Empire’s greatest asset. Several times Hannibal was forced to attack by sea instead of being able to invade from the North. This is not the only time in history was affected by geographical features. Climate overcame Hitler’s forces in the Invasion of Russia. The cold winter air killed off many of Hitler’s forces. That event alone could have changed the entire turnout of WWII. Europe’s features both hindered and kindled its growth as a world power. People’s choices have always been affected by their surroundings. The geographic features found in Europe were a commodity and the reason Europe succeeded the way it did for so long. Europe is filled with a wide variety of natural resources and geographical features. Sometimes their surroundings were beneficial and other times it was detrimental. Geography affected the choices of everyone. These features are what caused certain trade routes to emerge, cultures to find their identities, and wars to take place where they did.

An Introduction to the Dunning-Kruger Effect

At one point or another, you’ve probably heard someone speak with confidence on a topic that they actually know almost nothing about. Psychologists have studied this topic, and they’ve suggested a somewhat surprising explanation, known as the Dunning-Kruger effect: when people don’t know much about a topic, they’re often actually unaware of the limits of their knowledge, and think they know more than they actually do. Below, we’ll review what the Dunning-Kruger effect is, discuss how it affects people’s behavior, and explore ways that people can become more knowledgeable and overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect. What is the Dunning-Kruger Effect? The Dunning-Kruger effect refers to the finding that people who are relatively unskilled or unknowledgeable in a particular subject sometimes have the tendency to overestimate their knowledge and abilities.   In a set of studies testing this effect, researchers Justin Kruger and David Dunning asked participants to complete tests of their skills in a particular domain (such as humor or logical reasoning).   Then, participants were asked to guess how well they had done on the test.   They found that participants tended to overestimate their abilities, and this effect was most pronounced among participants with the lowest scores on the test.   For example, in one study, participants were given a set of practice LSAT problems to complete. Participants who actually scored in the bottom 25% guessed that their score put them in the 62nd percentile of participants. Why Does the Dunning-Kruger Effect Happen? In an interview with Forbes, David Dunning explains that â€Å"the knowledge and intelligence that are required to be good at a task are often the same qualities needed to recognize that one is not good at that task.†Ã‚   In other words, if someone knows very little about a particular topic, they may not even know enough about the topic to realize that their knowledge is limited. Importantly, someone may be highly skilled in one area, but be susceptible to the Dunning-Kruger effect in another domain. This means that everyone can potentially be affected by the Dunning-Kruger effect: Dunning explains in an article for Pacific Standard that â€Å"it may be sorely tempting to think this doesn’t apply to you. But the problem of unrecognized ignorance is one that visits us all.†Ã‚   In other words, the Dunning-Kruger effect is something that can happen to anyone. What About People Who Actually Are Experts? If people who know quite little about a topic think they’re experts, what do experts think of themselves? When Dunning and Kruger conducted their studies, they also looked at people who were quite skilled at the tasks (those scoring in the top 25% of participants).   They found that these participants tended to have a more accurate view of their performance than participants in the bottom 25%, but they actually had a tendency  to underestimate how they did relative to other participants—although they typically guessed their performance was above average, they didn’t realize quite how well they had done. As a TED-Ed video explains, â€Å"Experts tend to be aware of just how knowledgeable they are. But they often make a different mistake: They assume that everyone else is knowledgeable too.† Overcoming the Dunning-Kruger Effect What can people do to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect?   A TED-Ed video on the Dunning-Kruger effect offers some advice: â€Å"keep learning.†Ã‚   In fact, in one of their famous studies, Dunning and Kruger had some of the participants take a logic test and then complete a short training on logical reasoning. After the training, the participants were asked to assess how they’d done on the previous test. The researchers found that the training made a difference: afterwards, the participants who scored in the bottom 25% lowered their estimate of how well they thought they had done on the preliminary test. In other words, one way to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect may be to learn more about a topic. However, when learning more about a topic, it’s important to make sure that we avoid confirmation bias, which is â€Å"the tendency to accept evidence that confirms our beliefs and to reject evidence that contradicts them.†Ã‚   As Dunning explains, overcoming the Dunning-Kruger effect can sometimes be a complicated process, especially if it forces us to realize that we were previously misinformed. His advice? He explains that â€Å"the trick is to be your own devil’s advocate: to think through how your favored conclusions might be misguided; to ask yourself how you might be wrong, or how things might turn out differently from what you expect.† The Dunning-Kruger effect suggests that we may not always know as much as we think we do—in some domains, we may not know enough about a topic to realize that we are unskilled. However, by challenging ourselves to learn more and by reading about opposing views, we can work to overcome the Dunning-Kruger effect. References †¢ Dunning, D. (2014).   We are all confident idiots.   Pacific Standard.   https://psmag.com/social-justice/confident-idiots-92793 †¢ Hambrick, D.Z. (2016).   The psychology of the breathtakingly stupid mistake.   Scientific American Mind.   https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-psychology-of-the-breathtakingly-stupid-mistake/ †¢ Kruger, J., Dunning, D. (1999).   Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing ones own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments.   Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121-1134. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12688660_Unskilled_and_Unaware_of_It_How_Difficulties_in_Recognizing_Ones_Own_Incompetence_Lead_to_Inflated_Self-Assessments †¢ Lopez, G. (2017).   Why incompetent people often think they’re actually the best.   Vox.   https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/11/18/16670576/dunning-kruger-effect-video †¢ Murphy, M. (2017).   The Dunning-Kruger effect shows why some people think theyre great even when their work is terrible.   Forbes.   https://www.forbes.com/sites/markmurphy/2017/01/24/the-dunning-kruger-effect-shows-why-some-people-think-theyre-great-even-when-their-work-is-terrible/#1ef2fc125d7c †¢ Wednesday Studio (Director) (2017).   Why incompetent people think they’re amazing.   TED-Ed.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?vpOLmD_WVY-E

International Monetary Fund Argentina Project And Its...

The International Monetary Fund Argentina Project and its problems and outcomes One project of the International Monetary Fund was a series of loans given to the country of Argentina in the 1990s through 2001. In the 1990s many investors and brokers looked to Argentina for investments as they rated its economy as one of the world s strongest (Blustein, 2003, Aug 3). It was at this time that Argentina first started to follow the International Monetary Fund formula for economic stabilization in development including reducing budget in balance of payment deficits, raising interest rates, reducing inflation, privatizing state assets, and reducing trade barriers and regulation on capital flows in and out of the country (Paddock, 2002, p. 158). These policies helped reduce the hyper-inflationary levels that Argentina had reached during the 1980s. This positive outlook may have prevented a needed change in the economic policies when the effects of the Mexican peso crisis in 1995 placed Argentina s economy in a brief recession. It wasn t until 1998 that Argentine po licymakers discussed the country s finances with a senior official of the International Monetary Fund who sounded the alarm that the country might be headed for an Asian style melt down. However despite the warning significant economic changes were not made, in part due to the confidence that money could be easily acquired from the International Monetary Fund (Blustein, 2003, Aug 3). In 1999 the financialShow MoreRelatedThe Crisis Of Bolivia As Economy1661 Words   |  7 Pageshas now an accumulated valuable amount of rainy-day fund of foreign reserves. Ana Corbacho, the International Monetary Fund’s chief of mission said of Bolivia’s growth: â€Å"Bolivia has in a way been an outlier. 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Literary Analysis - the Law of Life Essay - 1113 Words

Running head: LITERARY ANALYSIS Literary Analysis Sergio Scott Grand Canyon University ENG-353 American Literature II Susan Crannell September 28, 2011 Sergio Scott Susan Crannell ENG 353 September 29, 2011 Literary Analysis Naturalism was a literary movement that took place from the 1880s until the 1940s. It used realism as a mechanism to suggest that social conditions, heredity, and environment had a monumental impact in changing or defining human character. Naturalism exposes the dark areas of life and how they affected people, such as sex, violence, disease, prejudice, abandonment, disease, and even death. Naturalism, in short, is a need to return to the earth. (Williams, 571) A prime example of this literary theory†¦show more content†¦Another characteristic of the story that allows it to be classified under the Naturalism genre is the fact that the entire story focuses around abandonment. This was established within the very first paragraph of the story, as shown in the excerpt â€Å"Sit-cum-to-ha was his daughters daughter, but she was too busy to waste a thought upon her broken grandfather, sitting alone there in the snow, forlorn and helpless†. At first, Old Kos koosh panicked at the thought of dying alone in the freezing cold, but slowly and surely he started to realize his fate and why his family members made the decision to pursue on and leave him behind. An aspect of the story that really made it stand out and gave it an added touch of realism was how calmly Old Koskoosh accepted his fate. Evidence of this acceptance can be seen in this excerpt: â€Å"He bowed his head in content till the last noise of the complaining snow had died away, and he knew his son was beyond recall. Then his hand crept out in haste to the wood. It alone stood between him and the eternity that yawned in upon him. At last the measure of his life was a handful of fagots. 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What Are the Main Causes of Food Insecurity in the World Today Free Essays

What are the main causes of food insecurity in the world today? Outline and evaluate 2 or 3 possible solutions to food insecurity problems Currently, millions of people across the globe suffer from under-nutrition and hunger. In 2007, the UN (United Nations) estimated that there are approximately 850 million people who suffer undernourishment in the world today. It also reported that 799 million undernourished people live in developing countries, most of which are on the African and Asian continents. We will write a custom essay sample on What Are the Main Causes of Food Insecurity in the World Today? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Reportedly, the major contribution to this international issue has been food insecurity (FAO, 2008, p. 8). It affects people ranging from individual to national level with various causes, particularly neglect of agriculture and natural disaster in developing countries (FAO, 2005, no page given). This essay will identify two main causes of food insecurity which have been said above and also it will outline and evaluate two possible solutions to food insecurity problems: improving agriculture and humanitarian aid system. It is necessary to define the meaning of food security before its causes can be considered. Commonly, the concept of food insecurity is the state of being unable to have both physical and economic access to enough and nutritious food (WHO, 2008). Socially, people who are in this state often cannot maintain household food supplies and suffer from under nutrition (FAO, 2005). This situation prevails when nations lack sustainable access to sufficient, safe and, nutritious food for productive and health living (WHO, 2008). According to an on-line journal by Getachew (2008, no page given), neglect of agriculture has been ascribed as the major cause of food insecurity from short-term shocks. Other search illustrates that natural disasters can have significant impacts on food security from long-term shocks (FAO, 2005). Millions of people around the world are affected on food insecurity by various issues especially downgrading agriculture and natural disaster. Having outlined the definition of food security, it is now possible to consider the main causes of food insecurity. There are various factors that contribute to food insecurity in different parts of the world. First, neglect of agriculture especially in developing countries is such a key ause of chronic food insecurity (Makoni, 2010, no page given). According to Khasnobis (2009, p230), the amount of foreign aid allocated to agricultural activities has decreased from 19 per cent in 1980 to 4. 5 per cent in 2009. Nevertheless, only a few governments have attained the 2003 Maputo Declaration which required every nation to allocate 10 per cent of its budget to agriculture. It can be said that this has consequently led to poor infrastructure, along with poor food-storage facilities, which risk such nations in suffering food shortage in case of crop failure. Indeed, food insecurity is likely to be greater in areas with lower agricultural knowledge (USDA, 2010, no page given). According to an on-line article by Makoni (2010, no page given), 80 percent of population in Africa depend on agriculture and people become more poor because of low productivity and consequently, 30 percent suffer from hunger daily. Therefore, it could be argued that this evidence illustrates that chronic neglect of agriculture can lead to low productivity, poverty, and eventually chronic food insecurity. Secondly, natural disasters can be considered as another major cause of food insecurity. According to an on-line article in FAO (2008, no page given), in the past two decades, the number of sudden onset natural disasters including floods, hurricanes and earthquakes has increased dramatically from 14 per cent in the 1980s to 27 per cent since 2000. In the result of this, the number of food insecurity has increased sharply during the same period (FAO, 2008, no page given). Food security is affected by natural disasters through its impact on local and national food systems. Recently, the impact of natural disasters has created a fall in agricultural product prices and therefore this current price led to inconvenient conditions for farmers in developing countries (FAO, 2002, no page given). Under the circumstance, producers use less money for improvements on the nature of farming land such as fertilizers and manure which are normally not affordable by poor farmers (FAO, 2002, no page given). Thus it causes a bad effect on food production in developing countries and eventually food insecurity. Moreover, when natural disasters occur, poor households suffer great economic losses, resulting in deepening their poverty further. These losses can trap them in food insecurity. As a result, it seems that natural disasters are one of the causes of food insecurity. Now, the remainder of this essay will discuss solutions for the two causes of food insecurity which have been argued above. In order to solve food insecurity problems, improving agriculture can be one of the solutions. International donors and the government in developing countries had neglected agriculture for a long period and it causes food insecurity. In 2008, the World Bank, in its annual development report, admitted that greater investment in agriculture is needed to solve food insecurity problems (Makoni, 2010, no page given). Investment in agriculture can make the governments to ensure that farm materials and equipment are available to farmers at fair prices. Moreover, government is also able to ensure that farmers in the rural areas have easy and convenient access to the necessary farming requirements (FAO, 2008, no page given). This can be achieved by setting up stores for supplying these materials and equipment in every region at strategic places (Khasnobis, 2009, p231). Thus, it can be said that improving agriculture including investment for the availability of materials and equipment can allow people to record high productivity and it leads to solve food insecurity problems. However, it requires an enormous amount of investment in these materials and equipment and so it is not a constructive solution if the developing countries assets are in a bad shape. Furthermore, it is essential to address that climate change problems still affect on agriculture improvement in developing countries even the governments invest in these materials and equipment. Recently, impact of climate change on food production in developing countries has been increasing and at this rate, its impact will be double by 2060 (FAO, 1996, no page given). This means that it is also necessary to invest in agriculture to increase the resilience of present food production systems due to climate change problems. For example, investment in drip systems and sprinklers enables farmers to produce more food with less water (Postel, 2001, no page given). However, it is a long term solution and a large amount of funds is needed to offer these systems to every farmer. It could be said that investment in agricultural materials and equipment is one of the solutions to solve the food insecurity problems, and it should be concerned that investment to improve the food production systems is also needed because of climatic changes. However, a large amount of funds and time is needed for these solutions so, it can be said that these solutions are not so practical for food insecurity problems. Secondly, improving humanitarian aid system for natural disasters can be another solution for food insecurity due to the fact that natural disasters cause food insecurity. When natural disasters happen in developing countries, it causes the direct physical damages on crops and the indirect impacts especially, loss of potential production due to deteriorated the nature of farming land, and increased productions cost (UN, 2008). Thus, when natural disasters especially sudden onset disasters happen, the immediate humanitarian aid, particularly medical support, relief supplies and food aid for disaster refugees is needed as it causes food insecurity eventually. According to an on-line article in Oxfam International (2009, no page given), the number of people affected by national disasters will increase by 54 per cent to 375 million people in the next five years. However, the aid response is fickle, too little and not good enough. One of the reasons for this is political preferences make aid unfair (Oxfam, 2009, no page given). For example, in 2004, while an average of only $23 was spent for each victim of the crisis in Chad, an average of $1,241 was spent per person affected by the Asian tsunami (Oxfam, 2009, no page given). Therefore, it is essential to improve the immediate aid system promptly without political preferences so that it is possible to prevent the agricultural damages from spreading. As it is mentioned earlier, backward aid for natural disasters is important to prevent agricultural damages. Moreover, proactive aid is also needed to prepare for disasters to decrease the damage from it (Oxfam, 2009, no page given). Investment for researching data on past natural disasters can be one of the examples. It is an effective but not easy solution without the help of national governments. The United Nations should propose some ideas for improvement of proactive aid. It is a solution with long-term effects which reduce the impact of natural disasters and mitigate food insecurity. Food insecurity is highly dependent on agricultural production and is caused by natural disasters. Therefore, both an immediate aid and a proactive aid for disasters are needed to solve food insecurity problems. It is necessary that national governments help to improve these aid systems. In conclusion, this essay has identified that neglect of agriculture and natural disaster are the main causes of food insecurity today. Both of these causes lead to great economic losses, poverty and eventually food insecurity in developing countries. These causes are not directly related to food insecurity. However, they indirectly cause the major people’s food insecurity problems. In order to solve food insecurity problems, improving agriculture by investing for agricultural materials and present food production systems could be one of the major solutions. Another solution for food insecurity is improving immediate and proactive aid systems. Thus, it could be argued that both long-term and short-term solutions are needed for food insecurity problems. How to cite What Are the Main Causes of Food Insecurity in the World Today?, Essays

Analysis of Speech And Annual Report for Inclusion & Diversity

Question: Discuss about theAnalysis of Speech And Annual Report for Inclusion Diversity. Answer: Introduction Critical Analysis of any literature is the process of describing and analyzing what are the strong and weak aspects of it and how successfully it fulfills the responsibilities it is intended to (Foss 2017). The reason for composing a study is to assess some individual's work keeping in mind the end goal to build its reader's comprehension. A basic examination is subjective written work since it communicates the essayist's supposition or assessment of a content. Investigation intends to separate and concentrate the parts. Composing a basic paper requires two stages: basic perusing and basic composition. The characteristic features which make a critical writing proper is that it should have a clear outline of points it is a articulating apart from that it should not accept or refuse any point made in that particular article on literature. It should rather think about all the sides and comprehend what is actually valid in that particular article (Foss 2017). The representation has to be balanced and the conclusion that is taken out from analyzing the whole literature has to be a balanced aspect between negative or accepting the point made in that literature in a descriptive writing that is no arguments made there is no refuting or accepting any claims only a description is given, but in the case of critical review there is arguments made for and against this particular aspect. The effectiveness of a speech in an article has been articulated by Paul Grice. Communication must have effectiveness in order to persuade the person to whom the communication is made (Grice 1989). Grice had established some maxims with which he decided that a particular speech article literature can be judged of its effectiveness. The first Maxim is the Maxim of quantity a person gives information in order to persuade and that information in itself the impact of population. The Maxim of quality is not providing information but being truthful and dedicated in order to establish the facts and not just provide information without any emotion. The effectiveness of a speech on an article has been articulated by Paul Grice. Communication must have effectiveness in order to persuade the person to whom the communication is made. Grice had established some maxims with which he decided that a particular speech article literature can be judged of its effectiveness. The first Maxim is the Maxim of quantity a person gives information in order to persuade and that information in itself the impact of population. The Maxim of quality is not providing information but being truthful and dedicated in order to establish the facts and not just provide information without any emotion. The maxim of relation is where one person tries to be relevant to the topic of discussion, provides logical arguments. On the other hand Maxim of manner in which a person is very brief clear to the point and orderly In the following paragraph the speech by Urvashi Vaid who is a gay right activist will be analyzed, the report of Apple Inc which talks about diversity analysed as well in a critical manner. The different tools that will be used in the process are Dilts Logical Levels and Grices Maxims. Speech Analysis The speech which is taken for analysis is delivered by Urvashi Vaid a gay rights activist in USA 1993. She starts by addressing the lesbian and gay Americans and the use of the term ' proud" is very important in this context, it is usually seen people who belong to the gay lesbian transgender community they are not of their sexual orientation this is because the social table that has been associated with this community from ages so she started her speech by the words that she is proud to stand as a lesbian today (Nava and Dawidoff 2014). She asserts that time has come honor and equality to be taken back by the community which they have lost because pictures of social Taboo. She talks about building a bridge, a bridge which will take people to a land where there is no suffering or prejudice towards any community gender sexual orientation color or Creed. it must be said here that the way she speaks is strong and assertive, she is not just making her points but she is demanding justice equality which the community deserves to get. We have come to challenge the cowardly Congress to end its paralysis and exercise moral leadership. We have come to defend our honor and win our equality (Vaid, 1993). This is that the people of LGBT community are not wondering anymore wilderness. The days of being afraid is gone this time to act in a way that change is brought to the society and the discriminating behavior of men is uprooted. Now the person speaking makes a point that the organizers have requested her to speak on the far right. Sister by saying that right which seek Supremacy are wrong morally, spiritually politically. Critically analyzing this section of the speech it must be said that if a change is to be brought in the society political class with the left the center and the right has to be brought on the same platform and they have to be convinced about this movement. Making any one of this political class estranged will be harmful movement to thrive among all. Spea ker believes that the far right has been trying to destroy the bridge which can reconcile the LGBT community with the normal USA American way of life. She has gone into saying that the Christian supremacists are wrong spiritually when the demon eyes us. But it should be known widely that today there are many Christians who support gay rights and they take part in many activities which are for the rights of the gays and lesbians (Hirshman 2012). Using the word Christian Supremacy is not correct in this context the speaker could have been only saying that religious fanatics on religious bigots who are opposing the gay rights instead of uttering the name of one particular religion. However she very expertly puts forward her point of reclaiming the gay rights and establishing equality in America. According to Grice maxims the speech is in the mode of Maxim of quality and Maxim of relation. the Maxim of quality is where one in the world to be truthful and honest and there are no information that can be designated as false, however it is not just give information it is like being truthful and giving one's viewpoint. In the Maxim of relation there are relevant discussion happening so there is no information that is out of context or that is not needed (Vogel et al 2013). Annual Report Analysis The annual report is of Apple Inc. We depend on the contributions from our outstanding women leaders. Twenty-nine percent of our leaders are women, Diverse teams make innovation possible. Our female representation is steadily increasing, and were proud of the progress were making, all these statements in the annual report reflect the importance Apple Inc is giving towards women empowerment and participation. All over the world all important companies are increasing their efforts to empower the women in all possible ways, by increasing participation and introducing them to leadership. Apple in its annual report has included empowerment of various other underrepresented communities of America. 50% of new hires are from historically underrepresented groups in tech, From July 2016 to July 2017, half of our new hires in the United States were from historically underrepresented groups in tech women, Black, Hispanic, Native American, and Native Hawaiian Other Pacific Islander. (Apple.com. 2018) Analyzing the annual report of Apple Inc it is quite evident that the company is thinking more about humanitarian project humanitarian activities that will be inclusive and that will not be what causes discrimination or distinction between different genders, Creed, religion, class, or colors. It must be said that the way Apple puts all these into perspective is somewhat naive, it is evident that a company must include women representatives and that should be more than 50% in the ideal situation, Apple only has about 30% of that number (Rhode 2016). They must increase the women participation so that there is a balance and equality in the gender gap. The 'consistent levels', first proposed by Robert Dilts, are regularly utilized as a part of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP), yet give a supportive structure to taking a gaze at what's going on in any individual, gathering or association. They characterize six levels of reasoning or circumstance: condition, conduct, capacity or ability, convictions, personality and deep sense of being, and are normally envisioned as a chain of command (Wiseman et al. 2012). Apple Inc. is having an employee base of more than 130000 people, and the changes they are brining at small levels are bringing change to the lives of thousands of people. Condition, conduct, capacity or ability, convictions all these characteristics are weighed in the most effective way by Apple in the Annual report. Comparison The speech by Urvashi Vaid is very strong in its efforts to establish the argument that it is high time that gay rights are recognized. She has used before means of metaphors examples and strong statements explore various ways in which the LGBT Americans can have established their rights. no she has not provided much data on Statistics in favor of her speech to show that what she is saying is material issue on ground but she uses a large number of examples metaphors and strong statements to say that the extreme right radicals who are not willing to give the gays their right must be eliminated in order to establish the rights and equality of all. However she could have used more real cases statistics and numbers which would establish that what she is saying is very true materially on the ground in the United States of America. That can be considered as one of the weak points in her speech. however it is true that historically some right wingers who are fanatics have tried to establish their own Supremacy over any other kinds of people with other preferences. Apple on the other hand is actually using statistics numbers to show that how the company is trying to remove any kind of discrimination from the company recruitment policy and includes the diversity of all kinds and women empowerment (Holton and Dent 2012). Apple is not making any high claims they are not making any strong statements against anyone, they are just doing the job on ground and recruiting people from all historically low represented background on Women in the maximum number they can. This is very strongly establishing a tradition of empowering all the people who are not yet properly represented everywhere. However, one of the similar points in both of these two literature, the speech of the gay rights activist, and secondly the annual report of Apple, is that in the present situation the right given to the minorities are not enough and there has to be more efforts in order to bring equality in the society. That is one aspect that reflects from both of these literature if compared because if there had been properly given to everyone then there would be no need of protest or any kind of mention of recruitment of people from various categories. The annual report of Apple is according to Grice Maxim of quantity and the maxim of manner. In Maxim of quantity maximum information is provided to the listener or the reader or the viewer, and in the Maxim of manner information is provided briefly and only the relevant things are spoken. Conclusion Thus it can be concluded that by critical analyzing the two pieces of literature given in this paper found that the common ground is to establish rights and equality for the people who are underrepresented and who does not have much voice to speak in the political scenario. Both the activist and the company are trying in their ways to empower people who are not yet empowered and are cornered by extreme right wing supremacist. The critical analysis has helped in finding out the flaws and gaps in both these literature and also in establishing what are the strong points in them. A better understanding of both the speech and the annual report is gained. Reference: Apple.com., 2018.Inclusion Diversity. [online] Apple. Available at: https://www.apple.com/diversity/ [Accessed 15 Apr. 2018]. Benton, M.A., 2016. Gricean quality.Nos,50(4), pp.689-703. Foss, S.K., 2017.Rhetorical criticism: Exploration and practice. Waveland Press. Grice, H.P., 1989.Studies in the Way of Words. Harvard University Press. Hirshman, L., 2012.Victory: The triumphant gay revolution. Harper Collins. Holton, V. and Dent, F.E., 2012. Women and Leadership. InWomen in Business(pp. 78-94). Palgrave Macmillan, London. Nava, M. and Dawidoff, R., 2014.Created equal: Why gay rights matter to America. St. Martin's Griffin. Rhode, D.L., 2016.Women and leadership. Oxford University Press. Vaid, U., 1993.Gifts of Speech - Urvashi Vaid. [online] Gos.sbc.edu. Available at: https://gos.sbc.edu/w/vaid.html [Accessed 15 Apr. 2018]. Vogel, A., Bodoia, M., Potts, C. and Jurafsky, D., 2013. Emergence of Gricean maxims from multi-agent decision theory. InProceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies(pp. 1072-1081). Wiseman, R., Watt, C., Ten Brinke, L., Porter, S., Couper, S.L. and Rankin, C., 2012. The eyes dont have it: lie detection and neuro-linguistic programming.PloS one,7(7), p.e40259.